The Oruro Mask Dance Essay Example for Free

The Oruro Mask Dance EssayCulture is usu tout ensembley expressed by dint of diametrical mediums. Values, beliefs, and aspirations of a particular group of people ar imbibed in culture. Thus, in order for these cultural traits to be represented in what social scientists scream the world of cultural relativism, people express it through rituals, trip the light fantastic toes, and songs. Generally, these mediums are called feasts. Here in Bolivia, specifically, in Oruro, Santa Cruz, the Oruro Devil Dance is a famous festival. Eight long time before the Ash Wednesday, people gather around the towns plaza to perform a beautiful devil dance or diablada in Spanish (Hamre 1). The devil dance is a commemoration of our ancestors prior to the coming of the Spaniards a sort of tribute to the dead. The escolas de samba chooses a new theme from each one year. These themes have one direction they ought to relive the days of our ancestors. For one, our commemoration of the dead is a s ymbolic gesture of respect and magnanimity to the dead. Also, we recognize the efforts made by our ancestors in fighting foreigners. Their blood was spilled in the country in order to protect it from invaders.Thus, even with the prohibition of Spanish colonial officials from celebrating this dance, our forefathers danced it in the mountains, far from the contours of civilization. As one may note, diablada survived al nigh unchanged for many centuries. We, the Bolivians, are also proud of the colorful features of the masque dance. Hundreds of devils in monstrous costumes can be seen in the streets of the town. Some masks are heavy and to an American viewer scary. Other masks have bulging eyes and long hairs, just like the characteristics of the devil in Hollywood movies.I especially like devil masks wearing sparkling breastplates and golden spurs. Some masks are really light, connotative of the spiritual origin of devils. The devil dance is supplemented by a pacifying, rhythmic musi c from brass bands, pipers, and drummers. The colorful image of the festival as well as its solemn dedication to our ancestors makes it my favorite pass here in Bolivia. Then the noise in the festival becomes loud and frenzied. Out of the devil dancers comes China Supay (Hamre 1). She is the devils wife who performs a teasing dance to attract the Archangel Michael.By the way, this dance was modified by the Spaniards to suit the predominant religion of Bolivia (Roman Catholicism). Then, members of workers unions carry small symbols of their union. This is done to show their have for the festival. Dancers in Inca costumes, with headdresses and symbols of the sun and moon on their chests, dance with the dancers dressed as black slaves. These slaves were imported to Bolivia by the Spaniards from West Africa to work in silver mines (operated by the colonial government). Then, family members appear. They are led by matriarchs dressed in yellow.The man of the household appears first (in red dress) then the daughters (in green dress). After which, the families go to the football game stadium. Here the next jubilances take place. In the stadium, two plays are conducted (Hamre 1). The first play is about the conquest of Bolivia by the Spanish conquistadores. The second is about the advantage of the Archangel Michael against the devil and the Seven Deadly Sins. Michaels flaming sword is emphasized as the sword of light bound to defeat evil for all eternity. Then, the singing of the song of the Patron Saint of the Miners becomes the next event.They are also expressed in dance using a Quecha hymn. The purpose of the plays is very clear. The plays are a protest to the abuse of Spanish officials and clergy during colonial Bolivia. Although the festival is mixed with Christian tales and concepts, it still adheres to the pre-colonial ceremony of giving gratitude to the dead and the mother earth Pachamama (Hamre 1). The conflict of veracious and evil are emphasized and made clear through the actions of early Catholic priests pacifying an already civilized nation. Thus, it can be said that the mask festival, specifically the devil dance, is a characterization of our nations history.Such history is, of course, characterized by the struggle of good (justice) and evil (injustice by colonizers). The triumph of good subscribeifies the break of our country from the bonds of colonialism, and its entrance to a new hope (the hope that the good will reign in the future). For days, the celebration of the carnival continues. The diablada dancers break into smaller group. Usually, huge bonfires are set to characterize the spiritual and physical unity of the country. Processions are then made and the church becomes a refuge for the homeless.Then, men from different families jointly consume large amounts of Bolivian beer and the very potent chicha (Hamre 1). Chicha is derived from fermented cereals and corn and liquefied in high temperature areas. Usually as th e celebration ends, many people sleep in doorways. Others fall (because of drunkenness) sleep in the towns plaza. The mask festival, most especially the devil dance, is my favorite festival among the festivals in both Bolivia and the United States. One reason is the character of the festivals message. The redemption of humanity (a Christian concept) from evil is likened to the separation of Bolivia from Spanish rule.This festival presents the history of our country as it both experienced oppression and hope. My next reason has something to do with culture. Among all the festivals celebrated in our country, the mask dance is the most comprehensive that is, it establishes the full personality of Bolivia. Note that in my description, the mask festival does not focus on one character of a Bolivian rather it draws from past historical experiences to highlight the full character of a Bolivian. For example, Bolivians are known for being hospitable and diplomatic.This is shown in the mixed dance of the devil dancers with the Incas (a sign of friendship). This festival is really the life and character of my country, Bolivia. Works Cited Devil Dance. (2007). Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. 30 October 2007 from http//www. britannica. com/eb/article-77638/Native-American-arts (accessed). Hamre, Bonnie. (2007). Oruros Devil Dance is unforgettable. 30 October 2007 from http//gosouthamerica. about. com/cs/southamerica/a/Carnaval_3. htm (accessed). Oruro Carnival. (2007). New Mexico surgical incision of Cultural Affairs. 30 October 2007 from http//www. carnavalexhibit. org/bolivia. php (accessed).

Academic and Research Skills for Business

Academic and Research Skills for melodic lineAC. 1.1 Assess your own strengths and weaknesses.StrengthsEnglish Language Skills truly good communication and oration accomplishments Have fostered me in conveying my views better then anybody else.Evidence The positive feedback that I get whenever I give demo or seminar from various people around me.Academic SkillsGood intelligence skills They subscribe to been helping me to quickly read and guess the academic subjects.Evidence The comprehension skills helped me in question that I conducted to complete my assignments. This is the movement why, I score good grades along with positive feedback that I always c all over a wide-range of issues tour writing any question paper.Person SkillsAdoptable to any type of environment This quality has been helping me to withstand any challenging situation.Evidence I had lived along with my papers, friends flat, hostel and several(prenominal) other places work now and I am managed to deal with all kinds of people and situations.My WeaknessesAcademic SkillsPoor organization skills repayable to poor organizational skills, I am failing to manage the time.Evidence It is evident from the way I miss the deadlines often. I have been missing the deadlines to classify the assignments.Academic SkillsPoor analytical skills I am unable to analyze the numerical and statistical data.Evidence I failed to pose statistical reports several a times in last one socio-economic class.AC.1.2. Using this information, set butt ends for self-improvementThese stone pits were developed based on SMART criteria, which emphasizes on principles such as Specific, Measurable, Achievable, relevant and Time-bound.Specific According to this principle, the target should not be ambiguous. It should directly deal with the problem that the individual has been facing.Measurable According to this principle, the target should be developed in such a way that it helps in measuring the progress of the individual in acquisition of a concomitant skill set.Achievable According to this principle, the target should be within the reach. Unrealistic targets might push the individual into the anxiety and depression if things argon not going in a favorable way.Relevant-According to this principle, the target should give an opportunity to the individual to grow the skill set in the future.Time-Bound According to this principle, the target should clear information about when it is being completed. Based on the weaknesses indicated in AC.1.1, I had come up below mentioned targets for self-improvement.To enhance my numerical and analytical skill sets within one year from now the target regard is 20th November, 2017.To enhance my organizational and leading capabilities within three years the target run across is 20th November 2019.AC. 2.1 Outline the process for carrying out primary look for from several(predicate) sourcesThe process of primary look into is a tedious process as it in volves in disposition of data from the instruments such as Questionnaires, Foc apply company Discussions and Semi-structured Interviews.ActivityTimeParticipantsResourcesQuestionnaires It is one of the classic primary research instruments that help the researcher in perk uping the quantitative data from the research participants. However, the researcher fuel also collect the qualitative data by inserting open ended questions in the questionnaire. In a nutshell, the questionnaire should comprise of a right mix of twain open-ended and close-ended questions. The questions should not be leading to situations that can cause anxiety among the research participants. It is real important to avoid the personal questions to ensure that the questions dont lead to discarded situations. The biasedness of the researcher can result into variances in the final results of the data serene from the questionnaire.30 days25 PeoplePeers, Computer Survey Monkey packet, Courier, Emails, somatic Questionnaire, and MentorFoc apply Group Discussions This is another primary research instrument that workly helps the researcher to collect the qualitative data on the research problem. The researchers will ferment use of this method when they are in dire need of in-depth information about a research issue. According to this method, the researcher should gather a group of seven to eight highly skilled people for a group discussion and make them to put forward their views and contradict others views on a particular issue. The researcher is expected to have a set of questions that help in guiding the discussion. It should be ensured that the discussion should not go more than 90 minutes.1 Day7 PeopleDiscussion Room, Mediator, Notepads, Pencils, Computer, Projector, Video Recording Tools.Interview It is another primary research method that helps the researcher to collect the explorative or descriptive data from the research participants. Interview emphasizes on face-to-face meetin g of the researcher and research participant. In order to conduct an effective interview, the researcher should develop a questionnaire that comprises of several open-ended questions. However, the researcher can get the opportunity to ask follow-up questions during the process. Interviews or Semi-structured interview are chosen as research method when sample sizes on smaller.1 Week15Discussion Room, Interviewer, Notepads, Pencils, Computer, Projector, Video Recording Tools.AC. 2.2 Outline the process for carrying out alternate research from different sourcesActivityTimeResourcesDesk Research It refers to an activity wherein the individual collects the important lower-ranking data on a research problem from the place where he or she sits.5 Days utility(prenominal) Sources available on InternetNote Making In this blackguard, the focus of the researcher would be on noting down the important points that arise from the research. The researcher can make use of MS Word to note down th e points.5 DaysNotepad, Microsoft Word Software and Researcher.Recording Sources This is the step where the researcher records the important information about the sources that he or she has employ to collect the data. To carry out the secondary research, the sources such as magazines, books, newspapers and old research papers are used.1 DayInternetCollation of Data Collation is a process of comparing the data which has been collected from various secondary sources. The collation helps the researcher to come up with concrete ideas related to the research problem.5 DaysInternet and ComputerEvaluation of Sources This step emphasizes on evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of the sources used for secondary research. The process of evaluation should focus on checking whether the author is reputed and experienced and the publisher is credible or not.2 DaysInternet and Computer role List The secondary research study would be referenced according to the formats such as APA, MLA and Harvard.1 DayInternet, Computer and M S Word.AC. 3.1 noted key points of information from a variety of sources using industrious earshot skills and translation strategiesNote Making Techniques for Active Listening The techniques such as wont of the symbols, shorthand and acronyms had helped me in taking notes without losing the focus on listening.Acronym Acronym refers to the shortened form of a phrase or a sentence. Normally, an acronym is formed from the initial letters of the phrase. For example, the acronym for know in Business Administration is MBA.Symbols Symbols are the customized and pictorial representations that could be used to replace the words or phrases. The symbols help in making notes quickly. For example, the symbol *** would be used to indicate the importance of the concept or topic.Shorthand People use shorthand extensively maculation making notes without losing focus on the listening. The shorthand emphasizes on making use of the symbols and acronyms ex tensively to write the content.Note Making Techniques for Reading Loud Reading Aloud Reading louder gives an opportunity for the reader to understand the content better. If the reader does not understand the content, he is expected to read twice or thrice to understand it better.Paraphrase Paraphrasing is a process of rewriting the content in such a way that it does not lose its originality in meaning.Summary Summarizing, as the name indicates, is the process of writing the summary for a large content. While summarizing, the writer should try to convey the entire meaning that the research report or essay conveys.Synthesis Synthesizing refers to the collation of the information which is collected from various secondary sources. The synthesis technique would be helped when the individual plans to derive conclusions from the secondary data.Active Listening Skills Employed while Making NotesAcknowledging Acknowledge is a term used while describing an activity of accepting a truth. By acknowledging, the attendant accepts that he has unders to a faultd the content given by speaker.Eye butt -This is a process of looking into ones eyes closely during the discussion. The eye contact helps the attendee to follow the speaker and his emotions.Body language Body language of the listener clearly indicates his interest levels towards the speaker and the content he has been speaking. By showcasing appropriate body language such as sitting stiffly and nodding head, the listener can motivate the speaker to do his job in better manner.Concentrating and understanding what is being said The listener can display his active listening by concentrating and trying to understand what is being said. Asking doubts is one of the important aspects in attempting to understand what is being said.Techniques used for Reviewing Notes Re- breeding Reading multiple times help the reader to review the content and make effective notes. Rereading helps in shortlisting what should be noted down and what not very(prenominal) easily.Checking understanding Every time after(prenominal) reading, the reader should check his understanding levels. If he did not understand anything in the first attempt, he should follow the rereading technique. The process of checking the understanding levels should go on till he grasps the entire gist of the content.Clarifying/expanding Clarifying and expanding are possible only when the reader identifies the areas that he did not understood and get them clarified. The process of elucidate the doubts should go on till he reaches saturation on the topic.Examples where I have noted key points of information from a variety of sources using active listening skillsNote taking has been one of the mundane activities for me. Since I am attending the Business Administration Course, I got the opportunity to take notes on several occasions. The foremost occasion was the time when I was attending the classroom sessions. During the classroom session , I took the notes on important concepts related to Management. Some of the topics I covered while taking notes are scientific management, management styles, marketing planning and business organisation sector planning etc. My college arranges seminars very frequently. These seminars are given by the external ram experts. They speak about practical applications of the management concepts and career opportunities in the management field. Since I am very curious to know about the career opportunities, I did never miss taking notes of seminars.In addition to the management course, I have been undergoing homework that helps me in improving the personal and functional skill sets. During these training and development sessions, I have taken notes regarding the steps that could help in enhancing my communication skills and comprehension skills. These notes have significantly helped me to enhance my communication and comprehension skill sets. My listening in a day continues till I sleep . I have purchased several audio files that adduce me information about how to enhance my want levels and interpersonal skills. I take notes when I was listening to these audio files.Examples of where I have noted key points of information from a variety of sources using reading strategiesManagement is a vast subject and needs a comprehensive reading. To get all-round knowledge on the management concepts, I have been reading several books, journals, magazines, classroom materials, case studies, literature reviews and practical application guides. Every time I read any of the above mentioned sources, I never close up to take notes of important concepts. For example, in my classroom, the material would be distributed immediately after the class. The material sometimes is not included with the speaker notes. At this point in time, I just go through the slides and write down the speaker notes for them. This practice has significantly helped me in the past and has been helping me duri ng my management course too. some other example where I have taken notes is case study analysis. Every week, our teachers distribute the case studies and ask us to analyze and give practical solutions. At this point in time, we go through a wide-range of e-books, online journals and magazines to off knowledge on the case study problem and take notes of the important points that help in coming-up with appropriate solutions for case study. In addition to that, I have subscribed numerous of the online libraries to read journals and magazines whenever I have the free time. While accessing these online libraries, I never forget to take notes.AC. 3.2 Example Where I have Paraphrased and summarized information.While I am writing the class room assignments, essays, term papers, research reports, research proposals and dissertations, paraphrasing and summarizing are two important things that I always remember. Since I know that using others work without acknowledging them is equal to crime, I ensure that the paper that I write is right on paraphrased and summarized. Every time I am writing an assignment, I go through several books, magazines, journals and newspapers to gain knowledge on the subject area. Until I gain complete knowledge on the subject area, I dont start writing the assignments. Only upon gaining the knowledge, I write the papers in my own words. If the concepts are too complex in nature, I opt for paraphrasing. On the other hand, I summarize the lesser complex subject areas.4.1 Create a plan for research on a chosen topic in businessThe research plan refers to the procedural structure that emphasizes on drawing table or a flowchart that discloses information about activities involved in the research process and duration for each activity and resources required for each activity.ActivityResources Required eonResearch Topic secondhand sources of data and mentor7 DaysResearch Objectives Guides the researcher to go in right direction during the process of research.Secondary sources of data, internet and mentor5 DaysLiterature Review In the first step, the secondary data is collected about the research problem. The secondary sources used to collect data are books and journals.Computer, M.S Office, Secondary sources of data and mentor25 DaysResearch Methodology This emphasizes on choosing research method, sampling technique, and data collection methods.Internet, Peers and Mentors, Secondary sources of data and mentor10 DaysQuestionnaire Preparation Based on the knowledge acquired from the secondary data, the questionnaire would be developed.Peers, Computer Survey Monkey Software, Secondary sources of data and Mentor5 DaysCollection of Data Surveying the research participants.Courier, Emails, Physical Questionnaire,35 DaysData Analysis Microsoft Excel Software Application or SPSS has been used to analyze and present the collected data.SPSS, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word, Internet and Computer15 DaysDocumentationMicrosoft Excel, Micro soft Word, Internet and Computer15 Days4.2 Draft a piece of research work using appropriate reference techniquesAmdam, R. P. (1996). Management Education and Competitiveness europium, Japan and the joined States. Routledge, London and youthful YorkIt has been chosen because it compared the quality of education between Europe, Japan and the United States. According to Amdam (1996), education accessibility, which includes limitations of education visa and migration issues, would also influence the ratiocinations of students while choosing Business Schools. though there are numerous of universities of The United States provide quality education, which is equivalent to the quality education provided by most of the top Business Schools of the United Kingdom, it is very difficult for students to get visa for the United States.Craig, R. J., Clarke, F. L. Amernic, A. H. (1999).Scholarship in University Business Schools. Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal, 12(5), 510-524.Aff ordability factors such as cost of living and tuition fees play a major role in finality making process of students while selecting a Business School. Moreover, UK universities are known for offering good scholarships when compared to universities in other countries. utilization Prospects is one of the very a few(prenominal) attractiveness factors of Business Schools. The factor relates to the outcome of the education. The employment prospect is nothing but value of the education provided by the Business School in the labor market.The draft of my research consists of the questionnaire that I have sent to the students and data collected from them.QuestionnaireWhat is your country of origin?Asia b. America c. Europe d. Africa e. OthersEurope7Africa3Asia9America5Others2What attributes related to Education has influenced you to adopt the UK Business School over Business Schools of other countries? versatile courses in the business administration,ReputationAcademic support and schola rshipAvailability of ResourcesQuality of the InfrastructureDiverse courses in the business administration.9Reputation7Academic support and scholarship4Availability of Resources5Quality of the Infrastructure7Employment Prospects influenced my decision toYes b. NoYes19No11Affordability such as living cost and tuition fees are reasons for choosing UK as an education destination to study business administrationYes b. NoYes5No17Personal Security is an important reason for choosing UK for Business AdministrationYes b. NoYes19No7Good education accessibility programs of the UK influenced my decision of choosing UK as an education destination.Yes b. NoYes20No9AC. 5.1 Final draft, produced to a professional standardTitle Investigation on why students choose to study in Business Schools of the United KingdomChapter-1 IntroductionThe United Kingdom has been one of the highly successful countries that attract international students for its Business Schools. The United Kingdom has focused on area s such as internationalization of UK institutions, adoption of innovative technologies for delivering education and elimination of resource constraints to meet the demands of domestic as wholesome as international students to attract the students from various countries. There are several reasons behind students choose business schools of the United Kingdom over other business schools located in other European Countries and American Countries. By emphasizing on this trend, this small research paper investigates why students choose to study in Business Schools of the United Kingdom.Research Aim The primary aim of the research study is to understand major reasons behind students choosing Business Schools of the United Kingdom over Business Schools located in other Countries.Chapter-2 Literature ReviewAccording to Amdam (1996), education accessibility, which includes limitations of education visa and migration issues, would also influence the decisions of students while choosing Busine ss Schools. though there are numerous of universities of The United States provide quality education, which is equivalent to the quality education provided by most of the top Business Schools of the United Kingdom, it is very difficult for students to get visa for the United States. Affordability factors such as cost of living and tuition fees play a major role in decision making process of students while selecting a Business School. Moreover, UK universities are known for offering good scholarships when compared to universities in other countries. Employment Prospects is one of the very few attractiveness factors of Business Schools. The factor relates to the outcome of the education. The employment prospect is nothing but value of the education provided by the Business School in the labor market.Chapter-3 MethodologyData Collection Sources and Research methods The data for this research study will be collected by using both primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources used for this study are books, magazines, journals and old research papers. Primary instruments used for this research study are questionnaires. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods are used to analyze and present the data.Sampling With the help of the non-probability convenience sampling, desired research participants for this research study have been selected. Non-probability convenience sampling has been used as a sampling technique because it gives an opportunity to choose the participants based on the accessibility and convenience of reaching (Cooper, and Schindler, 2008).The sample size of the research study is 22 international students who have been studying in various business schools of the United Kingdom.Data Collection Process Online survey method has been used to collect the data from the selected target research participants.Statistical Tool The data is analyzed and presented with the help of Microsoft Excel.Chapter-4 Discussion on Findings, shutting and Recommen dation44% of the international students who have been studying in UK business schools have said that they chose UK because it offers several(a) business courses than any other countries. 89% of students have also said that the higher bout of employment prospects is the major reason for choosing UK as a destination for business administration course. However, the same does not hold true for affordability. When asked about affordability as a reason for their preference of UK business school, more than 70 percent of students have negated with the statement, indicating that affordability is not a real reason for their preference towards UK business schools. Nearly 70 percent of the students have also said that personal security offered by the government of the United Kingdom has also influenced their decisions to study in the United Kingdom.Conclusion and RecommendationsSome of the important factors influencing the international students choosing business schools of the United Kingdom over other countries are personal security given by the government, ability of the universities to offer diverse business courses and higher number of employment prospects shown by the universities. The other factors such as affordability an easy access to education are not very influencing their decision in choosing UK as an educational destination.It is recommended for the top managements of colleges in the United Kingdom and other countries to focus majorly on the providing higher employment prospects, offering diverse range of the educational courses and provision of personal security in order to attract more international students.AC. 6.1 Write up your findings on your Personal instruction PlanAfter following the PDP for six months, I could able to achieve moderate success in in controlling my aggression. The activities, processes and techniques that I followed throughout the year have ensured that slowly control my aggressive behavior. I have used the techniques such as med itation and relaxation techniques to control my aggressive behavior. However, I am still not confident of their effectiveness in practical environment. The recent group discussions have indicated that I am still aggressive while interacting with others. This is the reason why, I again kept the aggression under the areas of development in the skills audit. During the last six months, I did not really focus on increase my analytical and leadership skills. However, I tried to gain basic knowledge about the statistics, leadership and management approaches by reading a wide-range of books.AC. 6.2 Develop your execute plan, making notes of further actions required for improvement.Objectives of Personal Development Plan.To enhance my numerical and analytical skill sets within one year from now the target date is 20th November, 2017.To enhance my organizational and leadership capabilities within three years the target date is 20th November 2019.ActionPlanI should become familiar with numbe rs, multiplications, fractions and divisions.I should get fundamental formulas that help me in solving complex problems.I will undergo practice tests on regular basis.I will approach a mathematical or statistical tutor who can personally assist me during the process of improvement.I should get trained on the statistical tools such as SPSS and SASIll collect the feedback from my peers and tutor on regular basis to check the progress.I should read a wide-range of books and journals that give me knowledge about the management and leadership styles.I should undergo online training programs to learn more about management and leadership skills.I should work in a team to observe peers and business managers how they implement var

Effect of the Financial Crisis on Islamic Banks

Effect of the Financial Crisis on Muslim BanksIslamic cashboxing is a very young concept even though it has already been implemented as the nevertheless brass in two Muslim countries there are Islamic chamfers in more Muslim countries, and a few in non-Muslim countries as well. Despite the winnerful acceptance there are problems. These problems are mainly in the area of backing.Dubai Islamic Bank was the first private disport free bank and was set up by a group of Muslim origin men from dissimilar countries in 1975. in 1977 two more(prenominal) private banks under the name of Faisal Islamic bank were founded in Sudan and Egypt. Since the establishment of the Dubai Islamic Bank, more than 50 interest free banks have been set up. Most of them are in Muslim countries but there are others in Western atomic number 63 as well as Denmark, UK, and also Switzerland.All the interest free banks use basic principles that are concord upon but individual banks have different ways of im plementing and applying the principles. These differences are brought about by a countries laws, the circumstances facing the bank, its objectives and experience as well as its interaction with other banks.The features of the Islamic banksThe interest free banks have three kinds of deposits, namely current accounts, savings accounts and enthronisation accounts. The current accounts operate just like the other conventional banks.In the savings accounts are treated differently depending on the banks policies. In some cases, the banks are allowed to use the clients m unmatchabley but they have to guarantee to give back adept the full amount. In this cases, no capital is promised. On the other hand, savings accounts are treated as if they were investment accounts but they have less sloshed withdrawal and minimum balance assures. In these cases the expected profits level are usually low and only a portion of the average minimum balance is awarded.With the investment accounts, deposi ts are accepted for a given(p) period of time and the investors make an agreement in advance on how the profits ordain be shared with the banks. For this accounts, a capital is non guaranteed.MODES OF FINANCINGThe mode of financing in the Islamic banks is carried out in three ways investment financing, trade financing, and also lending.Investment financing has three perspectives musharaka, mudharaba and estimated rates on return basis investment. In mushraka, the bank joins another bank to set up a joint venture with both parties participating in their different activities. The profit or loss do from the venture business is shares among the banks in concurrence to a pre arranged agreement. This venture is usually an independent legal entity and the bank has the right to gradually withdraw after the initial period.In mudarabha, a bank contributes finances required for an investment and the client sources and provides the needed expertise, labor as well as the management to overs ee things. The profit gained from these investment is shared mingled with the bank and the client according to a pre arranged plan. Incase losses are made, the bank takes responsibility.Financing on the basis of an estimated rate of return. The bank makes an estimate of the expected rate of returns on an investment on project that it has been requested by a client to finance. The bank then provides the financing on the condition that the rate is payable to the bank in a given time period or intervals. Incase the expected rate on return is higher(prenominal) than the estimated rate, the client takes the excess profits but if it is less than the estimated rate, the bank accepts the lower rates. In case of a loss, the bank shares in it. wad financingTrade financing is also carried out in several ways mark up, leasing, hire purchase, sell an buy back, and letters of belief. In the mark up approach, the bank buys an asset for the client and is to be paid at a certain(a) time for a c ertain price and some profit. In leasing, the bank scarce purchase an item and leases to a client for an agreed time. At the end of this time period, the client pays the balance and becomes the owner of the item. Hire purchase is similar to leasing only that the item purchased by the bank is hired to the client for a given period and when the ends, the client automatically becomes the owner if the item.The buy and sell back approach entails a client selling an asset to the bank at a price payable immediately and promises to buy it back from the bank after an agreed time period and for a pre determined price. Letters of credit involves international trade. In this case, the bank uses its funds to guarantee the import of an item in attribute of the client, on condition that the profits made from the sale of the item will be shared between the bank and the client.LENDINGThe third mode of financing used in the Islamic banks is lending and it has three forms namely loans with service charge, no cost loans and bank overdrafts. Loans with service charge are loans that are given to the clients with no interest but a service charge is levied to cover the expenses incurred by the bank during the transaction. No cost loans are loans offered by the bank and no interest or service charge is required. The bank is required to set aside funds to enable it to grant these loans that are aimed at helping the poverty-stricken people and also the small businesses. Bank overdrafts are also allowed in the Islamic banks and free of charge but they are subject to a certain maximum.Other services offered by the Islamic banks are money transfers, bill collections as well as foreign currency trade which is at a spot rate. Islamic bankers treat their depositors as partners, in the sense that they have invested their money in the bank and the profits and losses should be shared thenceThe effects of pecuniary crisis on Islamic bankingIslamic banks looks at the sharia law for guidance in its activities and bans interest gaining activities and trading debt. Islamic finance is macrocosm promoted as way of dealing with the financial crises that is global. This year is said to be a mile stone for Islamic banking in the sense that the global financial crises has provided the Islamic banking with a golden opportunity globally re establish itself as a main stream and a financier and provider for justice and debt. The main reason as to why Islamic financing is said to be a good remedy for the current market is the fact that one can only promise what they have.For the first time, Islamic banking has been considered as a choice among the present structures and the current administrations in reference to products and solutions to the financial crisis. It is therefore primal for nations to adopt the Islamic banking techniques and principles in running their economies.Islamic banking industry is facing challenges and most of these challenges are in real estate and stock prices, according to advocates the system has built-in protection from the kind of runaway collapse that has afflicted so many institutions. The use of financial instruments like derivatives, which are said to contribute passing to the down fall of banks, insurance and investment giants, is banned.The dealing of Islamic banks is directly linked to economic activities that involve assets or the provision of services. This banking system is also exalted from other financial systems fo it commitment in upholding integrity and its way of avoiding bad business activities. The reason as to why this global financial crises has greatly affected other banks especially the world bank is their involvement in debt buying and accounts enlargement without evident or tangible transactions being carried out. The fact that the Islamic banking has been the least affected by the financial crisis has made it more attractive. Islamic Banking portrays many new and unique ideas that present the Islami c Banking system as a way of ensuring full employment, equitability of wealth, prices stability, income distribution, and sustained growth. The Islamic bank also carries out investigations on the nature and functions of money in interest free banking system and then, integrates money in capital theory.The lack of debt in the Islamic financial systems has saved it from many financial problems that are brought about by bad credit and this has seen its survival through rough financial periods. Also its prohibition of a risk free interest on return and trading permission has made the financial activities in an Islamic financial set up to be real estate backed and this gives it the ability to bring about value addition.The success of the Islamic banking regardless of the global financial crises is attributed to its capitalist financial system. The reason as to why Islamic banks have remained immune to the mortgage problem acing the international finance systems is because of their inhere nt factors. These factors include taking precautionary measures against money laundering, prohibiting trading in debt and also the professional and official restraints on taking up risky projects.There were complains that the Islamic banks were not offering genuine Islamic banking products they offered products similar to those in other commercial banks and gave them an Islamic name with the aim of attracting commercial banks customers who did not want to pay interests. The effects of the global financial crisis on the Islamic banks was not known since the Islamic banks received a lot of support from many other governments. Instead, the Islamic banks have taken precautionary measures and diversified their economic activities so as to avoid the financial crises consequences.It is argued that the global crises might continue for the abutting two years but the Islamic banks have secured liquidity which places it at a better position in facing the financial crisis in compare to other financial systems. This success has led to serious considerations of using Islamic banking principles as it has continued to realize more achievements and has proved to be resilient an d viable to the currently crisis hit financial system

Muted group theory: Research

Muted root supposition ResearchAbstractThe motivation tail this nurture is to research the muted themeing surmise, for the purpose to spread the determination to students taking the level 200 communications paper, this speculation may be employ in the final exam for this paper so on that point is a large necessity for the finding to be correct. While it is solid to understand the by-line in this feminist theory thither is an underlying interest occurrence for both manlike person and effeminate students.The problem in this report is the misunderstanding on the theory, the name itself is mis head teachering, giving a misconception that it has something to do with the physical inpower to speak.The focus this problem was solved was by a collection and evaluation of various take fors and conditions cogitate, n some fortunes mildly and others majorly, to the theory.The result from the research that was done was that, in short, the muted theme theory is a mental pro blem where by dint of the predominate assort of a grow the mute group is forced into all(prenominal)iteration.This theory is important it points out the obvious judgement processs about fe antheral cultures and explains reasons behind what they argon, how they become that way and who makes it happen. originThe purpose of this report is to gain the cutledge of what the mute group theory is, who researched the theory, whe refereeore they did, how it contri neverthelessed to the way we communication and what is the future for this theory.The intended way in which this leave behind be achieved is by dint of researching the theorists findings and collectively reporting on them, in a way in which my audience will understand.The limitations of this report were mainly funding, to gain inlet the most of the theorists articles, paid logins were required, or the funding to buy book of accounts that argonnt readily accessible. A nonher limitation was the catalogue at the Whitirei a library, sequence in that respect were an abundance of feminist related books in that location was a limited amount related to this in particular theory. The ability to read an index, I strand myself looking for a replacement book in the last few days when I realised that the one I was using had nothing to do with Kramarae. Lack of knowledge, towards the end of the time I had for the report I discoered that Kramarae had a different name for a period of her research. Lastly, time management was a major limitation.The methods used to research this theory were books from the library, articles from Proquest and articles researched from the internet.In this report you will find a literature review, the findings, Conclusion, a summary of points of in bodyation and a critique of the theory.Literature ReviewTwo BooksBelenky, M. F. (1986). Womens slipway of knowing the culture of self, voice and mind. In Introduction (pp.4-17). New York Basic books.Kramarae is used in the introductio n chapters as an example into the background of the study. In this surgical incision the author discussed the feelings of women not universe served adequately on their needs as women, the idea that women find it harder to establish themselves in manipulations of authority, talk about the intimation that women as often unheard or snub in most situations even when they feel that they know something important that should be sh argond, along with the feeling of universe ignored they feel they ar be discouraged from practising both intellectual line of work that is typically male overtopd as it is seen as being unfeminine and unreachable with what women ar suppose to be capable of.It is an unspoken idea amongst the male culture that women should e seen but not heard.Even now in the modern world, where things piddle supposably transportd it is still relatively rare to find womanishs in roles of authority.I found this book to gift the third largest amount of detail on my th eory from the books Whitireia library had to offer. The first being Readings in womens rightist Rhetorical Theory the serve up being my text book.I was disappointed with the lack of count on mention of the mute group theory. I found that I had to read between the lines to gather anything fosterful from this book. Not helpful, was the fact that in this small function of a chapter the author was using a multitude of examples from various theorists to explain herself.Griffen, C. L., Foss, K. A., Foss, S. K. (2004). Readings in Feminist Rhetorical Theory. In Cheris Kramarae (pp. 8-44). Thousand Oaks, Calif Sage Publications.The chapter of this book devoted to Cheris Kramarae opens with a background of her development of education and how she became interested wit this theory.Moving on to the first section Proprietors of language this section discusses the idea that in a male dominated culture the language is developed by male without consideration of womanishs (the dominate grou p develops the language without consideration of the mute group).The conterminous section is titled women as a way males/dominate groups inconsideration of the female/muted groups forces the compression of the muted group to begin with, i.e. having no fellowship to the culture dominate norms pushes the group deeper into decline.The third is a visiting scholar talks about the oppression of past female scholars and their research making the typify research redundant and repetitive if it had been openly accessible.The next Do we really want to a great extent overlook of engineering discusses the possible idea that technology nippy release the muted group by giving them the opportunity to be a part of the new language developed with the new culture the technology is producing, in any case the sceptical again this idea.The final chapter titled Feminist theories of communication discusses the multiple other female theories, these are all direct solely towards female culture while m ost non-feminist theory doesnt take this into account and results in misleading and dangerous ideas in relation to womens experiences.I found that the majority of this chapter didnt directed related to mute group theory more about feminist theories in general and relating them quietly to the mute group theory. But the points that are discussed are interesting while only slightly topical. Being only written five years ago found it did appear rather outdated when talking about technology.Two Database ArticlesCheris Kramarae. (2003). Women, Work and Computing / Unlocking the Clubhouse Women in Computing. Review of medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. NWSA Journal, 15(2), 207-210. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID 423976331).This article is a receipt to an earlier article on the relationship between women and the computer industryThe article points out that the percentage of women in this industry is declining but the is circumstantial know of why the original article was about Ruth Woodfield, Jane Margolis and Allan Fishers research into this mystery.They conclude with the reasoning of the culture of computing still being male dominated, there is still the potential though, for female to relent through this.This article discusses the idea of genderless universe allowing a theoretical re learn on the idea on society in the virtual world this is glib but in the physical it is impossible in regards to male superiors over employees, excessively many dominate group fear the idea of gender warp they do not want to be deceived or loss there index number. This idea does not seem like it would conclude with the potential finale set foreword.Finally two points are pointed out that were missed from the initial article, there was no mention of race issues in obtaining degrees and split secondly that the females that do pervade in this industry are stereotyped hostility with underserved labels.I found this article less than helpful in comparison to the other reading I collected, while it was written by the theorist herself there was little to no mention directly on the mute group theory, which I expected from the title. Although there are many points that I myself would relate easily to her theory.Cheris Kramarae. (2005). Muted Group Theory1 and communion Asking Dangerous Questions. Review of medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. Women and Language, 28(2), 55-61,72. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID 974623021)Kramarae explains examples about mute group theories mainly on the constraints of women receivable to the donate male group belittling their intellectual property, and academic works, she explains about how language is male oriented and is subjective against women. She also talks about the relation of other cultures and races with the mute group theory.She then movies on to the history of muted women for the past 500 years and how when she fi rst started working on her theory it was radical and topical, people were interested and fascinated but now this not so interesting, she puts this up to the fact that the world must be changing and fixing itself through technology, changing the definitions of the original male congeald language with less discomfort in the words that are used ordinarily in society.After that she compares standpoint theory with mute group theories, both theories relate the different in gender perception to their differing experiences and appropriates of their views. Empathy towards others and trying to see others views could help solve many group problems. Mute group theories looks at groups while standpoint looks at the individual.Later she points out that by trying to use the group theory results batch easily turn into essentialism by trying to not miss a viewpoint of a group you bay window look over another.This article was written by Cheris Kramarae herself, talking directly about her very o wn theory, by my option I would say that makes the article very accurate. It was a Journal from Proquest.Two Internet ArticlesBaer, J. (2009). Muted Group Theory by Cheris Kramarae. Retrieved August 18, 2009, from University of Colorado at Boulder web turn up http//www.colorado.edu/Communication/meta-discourses/written document/App_Papers/Baer.htmThis paper refers to both theorists Kramarae and Ardener (female and male), and describes there different approaches.Ardener seeing women as being constructed differently causing differences in the way they act. Defining muteness as being lower in status than the dominate group.Kramarae differs, defining muteness as the lack of power a group holds. She says that women a perceived as not only holds. She says that women a perceived as not only being less mesomorphic, but also as a group use a different language than the dominant group. This language to men is harder to understand as it is not worth it. Muteness is a dominant-group created p roblem.The next section is a case study explaining a work situation where there are two males and four females. Where the two males and one of the females are high(prenominal) positions and the other three females are there henchmans. The female that is in a higher role is there through conversion to the male manners to gain their acceptances, by relation her assistant was also confessedly by the males and they listened to both. The other two female assistants were treated as lesser valued workers, while they acted like females they were treated as salutary by their overheads, but their ideas in relation to the work were ignored or suppressed to gain the clients respect.The last section is the critique of the theory. The writer of this paper tends to apply with the proposed ideas with the muted group theory. Making points on her own evidence that for the 25 years Kramarae worked on muted group theory there was little change and nothing very big. Not much change in the way wome n are viewed between 1970s and 1990s.This paper was very relevant to the mute group theory, it compared the two theorists and gave a real life example, although it would render been more interesting if it was written by a male instead of another female.McLaughlin, D. (1999). Research report on Edwin Ardeners Belief and the Problem of Women. Retrieved August 18, 2009, from Oak University Website http//oak.cats.ohiou.edu/dm419397/mgres.htmThis is a report on the Edwin Ardeners article Belief and the problem with women.The author D.McLaughlin reports on this simular theorist to pack a further view of the theory.Ardener and Kramarae share the same ideas of the theory, that women or the muted group are muted by the unfairness in their language from the male or dominate group. The differences found in the theorist are that Ardener splits his theory in two parts, technical and analytical.Technical, in which the point of man-made language falls, women that cannot hap through this dialect are outcast as inarticulate.Analytical, in which women make believe to work harder in society to provable and must change to aspect the male norms. This was researched through the observation of the Cameroon tribes, where females would have to participate in rite s of passage rituals including seclusion, tests and rapes. Once past, they would be rewarded with respect and acceptance from the males.Ardeners idea of women is that their ultimate goal is to achieve the respect of male to be on a level playing field.The author concludes with the idea that this comparison is a symbolic look at our male dominated society in regards to the Cameroon tribes, that women everywhere must adjust their ways to achieve male acceptance.I found it interesting to read the male theorists take on the mute group theory, although I was disappointed by the fact that there definitions were incredibility simular, I did find that his comparison of the western culture and Cameroon tribes helped me understand the ideas that arise though his take on the theory. While the article was on a male theorist it was written by a female student, I would be more interested to get a purely male take on the theory.FindingsBackground Of TheoristCheris Kramarae was born 1938 in southwestward Dakota. Throughout the sixties and seventies she gain a B.S. degree in journalism and English, an M.S. degree in journalism and English and a Ph.D. in vocabulary Communication, she then went on to teach in the speech Communication department at the University of Illinois. She then focused her work in the structure and use of language.lineation Of The Theory/key IssuesTo define muted group theory, the muted group must first be defined. The muted group are not technically mute, but though the language their culture supplies them with, are unable to articulate themselves to the extent of the non-muted or dominate group, the dominate group being the superior group of people in the culture that hold the power to the decisions that define the culture, they take little to no consideration to the non-dominant or muted groups in their culture when creating the norms, through which pushing the muted group further into recession. The muted group theory is the theory through which this group occurs, with the dominate groups invention of the language without the thought of the pose group. The mute group differs from the dominant though their experiences and perceptions of these.Kramaraes theory is mainly feminist oriented, the mute group being woman and the dominant being men. Women are seen in society as lower beings compared to men, seldom involved in promotions in the workplace when there is another alternative along with examples like being tricked into being kept in their place.Application Of The TheoryWith the rate technology is advancing Karamaraes vision for the next steep of her theory is the movement into online communication interaction. Her idea is that online a person can be genderless, m aking communication uncontrolled by the muted group theory to abolish the norm of sexes getting different interference according to their significance in society. To be treated other than mindless helpers to the dominant group, men, women must change the way they are perceived by men to be accepted by men, when they are accepted they then gain the respect of men and are treated like they belong to the dominant group, the way this is done is that a woman must adopt the characteristics of a male, using their language the way it was intended by the dominant group and copying there mannerisms. With the advances through technology, the internet has provided us with the milieu and means, though with Kramaraes vision of the need to lose the female mannerisms to be accepted. With the new networking tools web 2.0 provided us with we can know create a new unbiased driven characters with sites like second life and games like world of Facebook. The dominant group however despise this idea, th ey are terrified at the idea that the power could shift, even the smallest degree so that muted groups proposals could be seen as important, or even more important than the up-to-date dominant group, hating the idea of even the possibility that Kramarae could be right they would never accept that women have their own personal language, to the dominant group all they are concerned with is power and how to use it against people.Evaluation Of The TheoryKramarae believes that women are the westerns cultures muted group of our culture, they are the repressed group driven into illiteracy through the actions of the dominate male group of our culture, creating the language we are forced to use daily through the raw fact that there is now alternative means to communication. To be accepted and pull themselves out from the depths of the male created recession, they must gain the respect of males through copying them and gaining acceptance into their dominant group. Kramarae hopes that this co uld be over come through the use of technology, changing our culture from dominant and muted groups to one large genderless group.ConclusionThe reason this theory is important in society is it raises issues about the female culture, how they are formed through their experiences, and since their experiences differ from males they shape differing norms then males and since males norms are society norms, females not fit in.Do you find yourself questioning the way youre seen in the world? Are you naturally part of the dominant culture that will end up in a highly respected job role? Or are you part of the muted group being ignored while others are getting the recognition that you deserve? Or you in the dominant group, after gaining the respect from you new pears by throwing away the traits of your natural muted group?Will the future bring the genderless society that Kramarae wants? Its hard to tell, but from the little mention of this theory since the 90s it seems that perhaps its alrea dy happening.A Summary Of Points Of InformationKramarae focused her work in the structure and use of language.The mute group are the non-dominant people in a culture, unable to articulate themselves to the extent of the dominant group. In western culture this is the female group.Dominant group are the power holders of the culture, making the decisions that define the culture. In the western culture this is the male groupThe dominant group defines the culture to their norms.The groups differ mainly upon experiences and how their perceptions are formed through these.Kramaraes theory can be applied to online communication interactionOnline a person can be genderlessGenderless meaning that the rules and norms of their group are abolished.To be accepted by the dominant group, members of the muted group adopt the ways of that group.The ways of the dominant group being the way they use the language and their mannerisms.The genderless communication is can be applied through networking sites that are now readily accessible to anyone, for example Facebook or second life.The dominant group are concerned with this idea and find objectionable the idea of losing the power that they currently can use against people.A Critique Of The TheoryWhen I began my research of this theory I thought that it was totally different from what it actually was. I had no idea that I was expected to research a feminist theory of with I am chastely against. But once I studied Kramaraes findings I found myself confused about my opinion upon the theory.I got angry at the idea of this theory, I am not a stereotypical female in theory, and I participate in many male typical hobbies and in general am a bit of a tomcat boy. So when I read Kramaraes generalisations about the female culture it annoyed me that I was supposed to fit into this generalisation. I found myself ranting at people about how this theory was so close minded and did not take into account the people who do not fit into these categ orises.Once I had finished researching my topic I was still annoyed but from a different position, I was now able to agree with the theory on many levels, it makes sense. The idea was females being put lower in importance in this culture and the males being the decision makings, its true as all the years ago when these norms were established women we discouraged entirely from pursuing any type of power oriented positions. Now days its changed, women can gain these powerful positions and that all fits into Kramaraes theory, to get to these positions women must change their ways to gain the respect from the dominant group, adopting the characteristics of the males. I dont want to accept it but I guess that my tom boy mannerisms can fit into this as trying to gain the respect of the males that I associate myself with.This theory was discovered by a female, most of the articles I read on the theory were written by females, the article I read on male viewpoint on the theory was written b y a female. I think it would have been much more interesting to have more male inputs into this theory. It is my opinion that a male student should have been assigned this theory to research.Glossary Of TermsDominant the state that exists when one person or group has power over another her apparent assurance of her husband was really her attempt to make him pay attention to herMute/ muted the equaliser of the dominant group, with a dominant group there is everlastingly the muted group. When one person or group has power over another, the power is taken away from the muted group to retain balance.Group any number of entities (members) considered as a unitTheory A hypothesis that has withstood extensive testing by a variety of methods, and in which a higher degree of certainty may be placed. A theory is NEVER a fact, but instead is an attempt to explain one or more factsCulture the attitudes and behaviour that are characteristic of a particular social group or electric electric or ganizationGenderless Without an associated genderFacebook Facebook is a large-minded-access social networking website that is operated and privately possess by Facebook, IncSecond life is an online 3D interactive virtual reality program which resembles console video games such as Final Fantasy, but is nearly entirely built and influenced by the people who use itReferencesBelenky, M. F. (1986). Womens ways of knowing the development of self, voice and mind. In Introduction (pp.4-17). New York Basic books.Griffen, C. L., Foss, K. A., Foss, S. K. (2004). Readings in Feminist Rhetorical Theory. In Cheris Kramarae (pp. 8-44). Thousand Oaks, Calif Sage Publications.Cheris Kramarae. (2003). Women, Work and Computing / Unlocking the Clubhouse Women in Computing. Review of medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. NWSA Journal, 15(2), 207-210. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID 423976331).Cheris Kramarae. (2005). Muted Group Theory1 and Communi cation Asking Dangerous Questions. Review of medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. Women and Language, 28(2), 55-61,72. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID 974623021)Baer, J. (2009). Muted Group Theory by Cheris Kramarae. Retrieved August 18, 2009, from University of Colorado at Boulder web site http//www.colorado.edu/Communication/meta-discourses/Papers/App_Papers/Baer.htmMcLaughlin, D. (1999). Research report on Edwin Ardeners Belief and the Problem of Women. Retrieved August 18, 2009, from Oak University Website http//oak.cats.ohiou.edu/dm419397/mgres.htmGriffin, E. (2009). A first look at communication theory (7th ed.). In Muted group theory of Cheris Kramarae (pp. 454-465). New York McGraw Hill.BibliographyCMM. (2009). Retrieved August 19, 2009, from http//oregonstate.edu/instruct/theory/mutedgrp.htmlCari Porter. (1999). Muted Group Theory. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from http//oak.cats.ohiou.edu/cp300795/mg.htmWikipedia. (2009). Mut ed group theory Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved August 19, 2009, from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muted_group_theoryWordNet Search 3.0. (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http//wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=dominanceWordNet Search 3.0. (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, fromhttp//wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=groupWordNet Search 3.0. (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http//wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=cultureDefine second life Google Search. (2009). Retrieved September 2009, from http//www.google.co.nz/search?hl=enclient=firefox-arls=org.mozilla%3Aen-US%3Aofficialq=define%3A+second+lifebtnG=Searchmeta=TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR QUIZ.(2004).Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http//blue.utb.edu/biology/oliva/terms_and_definitions_for_quiz_1.htmFacebook Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FacebookGenderless Wiktionary (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/genderless20800537 2 / 15gestational diabetes An analysisGestational diabetes An analysisGestational diabetes consequences for foetal schedule of vascular disease in due dateList of AbbreviationsAGE Advanced Glycation End ProductsCNS- underlying Nervous SystemEDHF- Endothelium-Derived Hyperpolarising FactoreNOS Endothelium derived Nitric OxideECM- Extra Cellular MatrixFFA Free Fatty AcidsGAD 65- Glutamic Acid DecarboxylaseGDM-Gestational Diabetes MellitusHDL- High Density LipoproteinHPL- Human eutherian mammal mammal LactogenIA-2 Insulinoma- Associated Antigen 2ICA- Islet Cell AntibodyIRS-1 Insulin Receptor Substrate 1IUGR Intrauterine Growth RestrictionLDL- Low Density LipoproteinMODY- Maturity Onset Disease of the progenyMRS- Magnetic resonance SpectroscopyNO Nitric OxideOS- Oxidative StressPKC- Protein Kinase CROS Reactive Oxygen speciesTNF-- Tumour Necrosis Factor T1D Type 1 Diabetes T2D Type 2 DiabetesZnT8 Zinc Transporter5-HT Serotoni nAbstractGestational Diabetes is a condition evince in the later stages of gestation period where the mother has insulin ohmic vindication leading to glucose intolerance. The aetiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus is largely unknown but several theories include autoimmune destruction of the beta carrells, monogenic mutations and insulin guard. In maternal quality it is prevalent for there to be some levels of insulin safeguard and it is thought that the products of the placenta contribute to the state of insulin subway as GDM commonly subsides after pregnancy. GDM in pregnancy can lead to an make upd happen of cardiovascular disease in the offspring such as hypertension and atherosclerosis. This is due to the change magnitude levels of oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators present during pregnancy. The placenta is very important as it is able to control and buffer the amount of glucose that is delivered to the foetus but if this level is too high then it is ou t of the placentas control and the foetus may have increment rate of harvest-feast due to this extra glucose. The current focus of research in this area seems to be into finding ways to diagnosis GDM earlier in the pregnancy and to try and reduce the amounts of oxidative stress.Gestational diabetes consequences for foetal programming of vascular disease in adulthoodIntroductionGestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) occurs when there is a glucose intolerance that is first detected during pregnancy. It is a form of hyperglycaemia (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). The aetiology of the condition is unknown but there have been many suggestions as to the score of it, including autoimmune destruction of the pancreatic prison cells and the possibility of a genetic predisposition to the condition. Hormones that are produced in pregnancy help contribute to the insulin resistant state which characterises diabetes. In new-made years, there has been an increase in the cases of Obesity and this is a venture factor for both Diabetes Mellitus and Cardiovascular Disease. The intrauterine environment can affect foetal programming and development. This essay will look into how the placenta and its products can affect the insulin resistant state and how this resistance effects programming as well as the role of oxidative stress and inflammation in making the offspring more susceptible to cardiovascular disease.Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)GDM is a state of insulin resistance which disturbs the intrauterine environment and can lead to accelerated fetal growth (Radaelli et al 2003).It effects near 7% of pregnant women with approximately 200,000 cases seen each year (Schillan-Koliopoulos and Guadagno 2006). The term GDM is applicable when the onset is during the second and third terms of the pregnancy, but it does not exclude the possibility that the insulin resistance was undiagnosed in the lead the pregnancy. If this is the case and is found to occur in the earlier stages o f pregnancy then the mother should be treated the same as mothers who are known to have diabetes before pregnancy (Metzger, Coustan 1998).There is a degree of insulin resistance in conventionalism pregnancy which begins towards the middle of the pregnancy but during the later part of the second and the final trimester these can increase to levels of insulin resistance that are associated with type 2 diabetes (Yogev et al 2008 Chapter 10). Insulin resistance is when the meanders do not produce a response to insulin due to problems with the secretion of insulin or where the tissues are desensitised to insulin and therefore lack the ability to produce a response (Catalano et al 2003).In a average pregnancy, the mother changes her metamorphosis to allow a constant supply of nutrients to reach the fetus to support its rapid growth. Among these nutrients is glucose, which is the main energy descent used by the fetus. During the later stages of pregnancy the mother becomes hypoglycaem ic and although there is change magnitude gluconeogenesis, the hypoglycaemia still occurs be exercise there is a high rate of transport of glucose to the fetus (Herrera 2000 cited in Herrera and Ortega 2008). GDM can have effects that impact the development of the fetus such as hypoglycaemia and macrosomia, which is an increase in body incubus and has the possibility of leading to problems when giving birth, such as shoulder dystocia (Schillan-Koliopoulos and Guadagno 2006). During the second trimester of pregnancy there is peripheral insulin resistance but there is also the possibility that hepatic insulin sensitivity is altered in pregnancy, although few studies confirm this. By the end of the pregnancy the levels of insulin that are go around are thought to be double those at the start (Redman 2001). Insulin ResistanceInsulin resistance in GDM can occur in two forms. The first is where it develops in late pregnancy and it has been postulated that there is a post-receptor mechan ism that may influence the insulin signalling highway which leads to a reduced glucose uptake. The second form is where there is already a degree of resistance before the pregnancy but the changes that occur in normal pregnancy aggravate this (Metznger et al 2007). The insulin resistance that develops in pregnancy is much needed to allow the flow of nutrients, from the mother, directly to the fetus to allow for growth (Radaelli 2003). change magnitude insulin resistance leads to an increase in insulin secretion by the pancreatic cells (Buchanan and Xiang 2005).The insulin resistance is thought to be caused by increased adiposity and as the insulin resistance usually stops after pregnancy this suggests that there is a possibility that the products of the placenta are a potential cause of the resistance. During the course of the pregnancy the actual changes in glucose levels are very small. It would be assumed that the glucose levels would rise due to the increased insulin resistan ce but the pancreatic cells increase their secretion of insulin to maintain homeostatic glucose levels (Yogev et al 2008 Chapter 10).GDM occurs because there is an increased demand for insulin which under normal circumstances can be met unless there are problems with the secretion of insulin leading to the development of hyperglycaemia. The majority of mothers who develop GDM have been discovered to have a degree of insulin resistance before they became pregnant. Therefore, with the insulin resistance that occurs in normal pregnancy it can be said that GDM occurs with a greater insulin resistance than normally present in gestation (Yogev et al 2008 Chapter 10). Insulin resistance causes a decrementd uptake of glucose into skeletal muscle, adipose tissue and liver as well as a decreased production of hepatic glucose. (Catalano et al 2003). adept suggestion for insulin resistance looks into the possible role of the mitochondria. Studies using Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) ha ve shown that in normal offspring of parents with type 2 diabetes, there is an increased amount of intramyocellular lipid. This has been shown to cause a reduced function in mitochondria which suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction may play a part in insulin resistance (Petersen et al 2004 cited in Morino et al 2005). It has been suggested that this increase in intramyocellular lipid activates a serine kinase shower which causes an increase in the Insulin Substrate Receptor 1 (IRS-1), which inhibits insulin receptor phosphorylation on tyrosine sites. This can cause a decrease in the effects and utilisation of glucose. virtuoso study showed that in the insulin resistant offspring the mitochondrial density was reduced by just over a third to that of a normal offspring. This suggests that offspring who are insulin resistant may inherit a condition that causes a reduction in rate oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria (Griffin et al 2009 cited in Morino et al 2005). sleuthing of GDM Diagnosis of GDM helps to identify pregnancies that are at risk of fetal morbidity as well as obesity and glucose intolerance in the offspring (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). GDM is hard to diagnose as it is asymptomatic. Normal diabetes could be diagnosed by glycosuria but in pregnancy the renal threshold to glucose is lowered so that glycosuria doesnt give a true representation of hyperglycaemia (Redman 2001). There are several risk factors of GDM which can be classified into three groups and help in the screening process. Low risk factors include women who are younger than 25, normal incubus at conception, no known family members with diabetes and no history of glucose intolerance. High risk factors include obesity of the mother, diabetes in close relatives, a history of glucose intolerance, current glycosuria and previous pregnancies with GDM (Metzger and Coustan 1998 Chapter 25).Causes of DiabetesThere are several theories as to why diabetes occurs and this has been thought to be s imilar to the underlying mechanisms that cause gestational diabetes. Diabetes is a result of pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction which can present in three main ways autoimmune, a genetic cause and on top of already present insulin resistance (Buchanan and Xiang 2005).Autoimmune diabetes accounts for approximately 5-10% of all diabetic cases (American Diabetes Association 2010). There are circulating antibodies to the cells of the Islet of Langerhans. In GDM, there are a small number of women who have with these antibodies present in their circulation. It is thought that these cases present with GDM due to problems with insulin secretion caused by destruction of the Islets by the autoantibodies (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). This form is similar to type 1 diabetes. The Islet Cell Autoantibodies (ICA) have been shown to have four major molecular targets Insulin, Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD 65), Insulinoma-associated antigen-2 (IA-2) and Zinc Transporter 8 (ZnT8) (Tree 2010).monogenic diabetes has 2 general forms, one where there are mutations in autosomes and the other where there are mutations in the DNA of mitochondria. The first form is commonly referred to as Maturity Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY). In both cases onset tends to be at a young age and the patient doesnt present with insulin resistance or obesity (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). Mutations that cause MODY have been found in some women with GDM and commonly occur in genes coding for glucokinase, hepatocyte nuclear factor and insulin promoter factor, MODY is associated with beta cell dysfunction (Weng et al 2002).Chronic insulin resistance with beta-cell dysfunction seems to be the most common cause of GDM. As mentioned before there is an increase in insulin resistance in normal pregnancy but if this develops with background insulin resistance then there is an even greater insulin resistance which can lead to GDM. An established suggestion is that women who are unable to increase their secretion of insulin to cope with the insulin resistance developed in late pregnancy are more susceptible to developing GDM (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). up to now there could be various environmental processes that are involved in the underlying pathophysiology of GDM. The products of the placenta may also have a role in change magnitude or decreasing insulin resistance and these will be discussed later.Placental FunctionThe placenta is an organ that has many roles during the development of the fetus. One of these functions is that it acts as a barrier to sort out the maternal and fetal surfaces such that the syncytiotrophoblast surface exposes the placenta to the maternal circulation and the endothelium is exposed to the fetal circulation. This position between the two circulations means that the placenta is influenced by molecules from both circulatory systems, including cytokines, hormones and growth factors. The placenta produces molecules which can separately affect the maternal and fetal c irculation and it expresses a large number of cytokines including leptin, resistin and tumour necrosis factor. However it has been discovered that these molecules are also produced by adipocytes. All molecules that are going from the mother to the fetus have to cross the placenta. Here they are either modified, for example lipids or like glucose, they are metabolised for placental purposes (Desoye et al 2008).The placenta plays an important role in fetal growth and the regulation of pregnancy (Giachini 2008). The placenta acts to sustain normal homeostatic levels and to carry out the functions of the vital organs. It also provides an immunological defence to the fetus and allows the exchange of molecules vital to its development (Jansson and Taylor 2007).Placental DevelopmentApproximately 4-5 days after conception, the process of cleavage causes rapid cell divisions and one of the groups of cells to form are called trophoblast cells. Further developmental processes form the blastocy te which is surrounded by an outer layer of the trophoblast cells. As the pregnancy progresses, the trophoblast cells develop into the placenta while the cozy parts of the blastocyte form the embryo and umbilical cord cord (Huppertz 2008).The blastocyte implants itself onto the epithelium of the uterus where it differentiates into a syncitiotrophoblast which is able to implant itself in the epithelium leading to it being plant into the decidual part of the uterus (Huppertz 2008). After the attachment of the blastocyte, the trophoblast layer divides very quickly and changes into 2 layers the inner cytotrophoblastic layer and the outer syncytiotrophoblastic mass (Gude et al 2004).The whole nidation process takes 12 days to complete and after this the fetus is fully embedded into the endometrial layer (Huppertz 2008).The chorionic plate is the surface of the placenta that faces the fetus and this is where the umbilical cord inserts. The humble plate is the surface that faces the mot her which contains many types of cells including immune cells such as macrophages and killer cells to carry out the placentas immunological function. The maternal basal plate and the fetal chorionic plate converge to form the smooth chorion which is composed of three layers (Huppertz 2008).When the trophopblast invades the endothelium there is a remodelling of the uterine spinal arteries which is necessary to check that the fetus and the placenta receive an adequate countercurrent and nutrient supply and is able to remove any waste materials. This direct supply of blood line and nutrients to the placenta can define it as being haemochorial villous organ (Gude et al 2004).After the rapid divisions of the trophoblast and development into 2 layers there are two pathways that can occur, the villous and extravillious pathways. The extravillious pathway results in the trophoblast being able to invade into the decidua and cause the remodelling of the uterine arteries to increase blood s upply to the placento-fetal unit. The villious pathway has a transportation function as well as having endocrine and protective functions (Gude et al 2004).Normal PlacentationPlacentation involves the structure and function of the placenta. The process of placentation is helped by the composition and arrangement of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the endometrium. Studies on rats induced with diabetes provided results that showed that diabetes has an effect on the distribution of the ECM molecules. This study by Giachini et al illustrates that Types I and III collagen as well as other molecules, such as proteoglycan molecules decorin and biglycan were distributed passim normal and diabetic placentas. It was shown that diabetes affects the expression of fibronectin and an increase in deposition of fibronectin may cause changes to the ECM structure which could affect the transfer of molecules from the mother to the fetus. One way in which changes in the ECM can be overcome is to te st blood glucose levels frequently during the pregnancy and if kept in normal ranges this can dramatically decrease the prevalence of diseases and disorders present in the fetus (Giachini et al 2008).As the pregnancy progresses the size of the placenta increases which also means an increase in the amount of products that the placenta produces therefore increase in the insulin resistance (Schillan-Koliopoulos and Guadagno 2006). This is because the net effect of the products of the placenta is to increase insulin resistance.The increase in size of the placenta means that it needs an increased blood supply. Failure of the mother to increase its blood supply to the placenta can lead to placental insuffiency which if exacerbated can be attributed to be a cause of intrauterine growth obstruction (IUGR). This growth restriction is more related to poor maternal nutrition rather than to a cause of GDM. GDM have been associated with an increased fetal and placental weight (Jansson and Taylo r 2007).One of the reasons why GDM and increased insulin resistance affects the fetus is that while glucose can cross the placenta, insulin is unable to. This means that the fetal pancreas has to compensate by producing more insulin to prevent high blood glucose levels. The fetal pancreas is capable of doing this and the liver responds to the higher levels of insulin by increasing its production of glucose (Schillan-Koliopoulos and Guadagno 2006).Offspring who have an increase in birth weight have been shown to be at risk of developing cardiovascular disease and diabetes later in life. The main risk factor for this is poor transfer of nutrients via the placenta (Jansson and Taylor 2007). How dramatic these changes are depends on how good the control of blood glucose levels have been during the development of the placenta, if any treatment has been received and if there were any periods of away from normal glucose levels (Desoye 2006).How does diabetes affect Placentation?Diabetic in sults at the beginning of the pregnancy can have long last effects of the placenta. One of the roles of the placenta is that it is able to buffer excess maternal glucose which can help to give the fetal glucose levels within range However if the insult lasts longer than the placenta is able to compensate for then excessive fetal growth may occur (Desoye Mouzon 2007).In diabetes there is endothelial dysfunction which can lead to vascular disease. The endothelial cells help to control the vascular tone of the smooth muscle lining the vasculature. They do this by producing substances that help to vasodilate the smooth muscle including Nitric Oxide, Prostacyclin and Endothelium-Derived Hyperpolarising Factor (EDHF). There have been several studies to suggest different mechanisms of how diabetes affects the endothelium including impaired release of these vasodilating molecules, faults with signal transduction and increased release of constricting mediators of the endothelium. The dysfun ction of the endothelium in diabetes is thought to be caused by activation of protein kinase C (PKC) as well as increased oxidative stress, non-enzymatic glycation and an increased activation of the polyol pathway (De Vries et al 2000).The main reason why these effects occur is thought to be due the activation of the protein kinase C pathway and the increased oxidative stress. This can cause early damage to the development of vascular vessels (Roberts and Raspollini 2008). These mechanisms will be discussed later.The effect of hormones produced in pregnancyPregnancy causes changes in the circulating hormones and cytokines which can all have different effects on insulin resistance and this may help explain the mechanism underlying the resistance that is found in pregnancy and in GDM.Cytokines produced in pregnancy, such as TNF-, Adiponectin and Leptin have been found to cause an increase in the insulin resistance (Gao et al 2008). In early pregnancy, the levels of estrogen and proge sterone rise but no net effect is seen as the two have antagonistic effects. Oestrogen increases the binding of insulin to its receptor whereas progesterone reduces the ability of insulin to bind (Ryan and Enns 1988).Cortisol levels in pregnancy increase so that by the end of the pregnancy the levels are three times that of what they were at the beginning (Gibson and Tulchinski 1980 cited in Yogev et al Chapter 10). Studies have shown that with increased amounts of cortisol there was a decrease in insulin sensitivity causing insulin resistance (Rizza et al 1982 cited in Yogev et al 2008 chapter 10). During pregnancy the levels of lactogenic hormone increase up to ten times the normal amount (Yogev et al 2008 chapter 10). Studies have shown that in a culture of pancreatic beta cells, prolactin can cause an increase in levels of secreted insulin (Sorenson et al 1993 cited in Yogev et al 2008 Chapter 10). However, high levels of prolactin are not seen to be a pathological cause of GDM (Yogev et al 2008 chapter 10).Human placental lactogen (HPL) is a hormone, and its levels rise during the second trimester of pregnancy. This causes a decrease in the phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate (IRS1) which can lead to significant insulin resistance (Ryan and Enns 2008 cited Yogev et al 2008 ch 10).Leptin is associated with obesity and concentrations of leptin have been shown to be related to the concentration of insulin in the plasma. In pregnancy the leptin levels increase dramatically. During pregnancy the mother uses her fat stores to support fetal growth and it is thought that the leptin levels increase with the mobilisation of these fat stores. Leptin levels relate to the body mass of the individual (Sattar et al 1998). Placental Leptin is the same in structure and steering to the one produced by adipose tissue (Ashworth et al 2000). One study showed that high leptin concentrations in the umbilical cord increased the likelihood of developing fetal macrosomi a (Wiznitzer et al 2000). It is also thought that leptin effects insulin sensitivity by effecting glucose metabolism in both skeletal muscle and in hepatocytes. Rats that received an external source of leptin were found to have an increase in gluconeogenesis which accounted for the majority of hepatic glucose production (Rossetti et al 1997).In GDM there is a greater secretion of TNF-alpha in response to glucose. TNF-alpha functions to limit metabolism of glucose and lipids as well as being involved in insulin resistance. Many studies suggest that TNF-alpha is involved in the progression to GDM. They found that an increase in glucose cause the placenta and adipose tissue to increase production of TNF-alpha in some cases up to 4 times more than non-diabetic pregnant(Coughlan et al 2001). One study showed that the increases in the levels of TNF-alpha during pregnancy increased consistently with increases in body weight (Catalano et al cited in Yogev et al 2008).Adiponectin is a prote in derived from adipose tissue and its function is to regulate insulin resistance and maintains levels of glucose. During pregnancy it has been found that its levels drop and could therefore lead to the increase insulin resistance found in GDM (Gao, Yang, Zao 2008). Adiponectin has also been found to decrease the secretion of TNF-alpha which as stated above can lead to insulin resistance (Hotamisligil 1999 cited in Yogev et al Chapter 10 2008). Adiponectin may cause increased insulin sensitivity as its concentration decreases throughout the gestational period (Desoye and Mouzon 2007).Resistin is a protein that is produced by adipose tissue and is thought to be involved in insulin resistance in diabetes and is associated with obesity (Steppan and Lazar 2002) In pregnancy, resistin is secreted by the placenta and this secretion reaches its peak by the last trimester (Yura et al cited in Megia et al 2008).Studies show that TNF-alpha is an important factor in insulin resistance during p regnancy and with inputs from leptin and cortisol there is altered glucose metabolism whereas inputs from oestrogen, progesterone and prolactin had little significant effects (Kirwan and Mouzon 2002).There are many hormones produced during pregnancy, mainly by the placenta and adipose tissue that have varying affects but with the overall impact being insulin resistance.Inflammation in DiabetesThere are genes in the placenta which regulate reorganisation of the endothelium and inflammatory responses and in GDM these were found to be altered. The increase in leptin receptors suggests that in the placenta this can cause proinflammatory responses (Radaelli 2003).One of the current theories is that the abnormal metabolic environment in GDM can lead to increased production of cytokines and inflammatory mediators. Molecules such as TNF-alpha, Resistin and Leptin increase during pregnancy and these increases in these inflammatory mediators produce metabolic changes by increasing insulin res istance (Desoye and Mouzon 2007).Leptin and TNF-alpha activate phospholipase A2 which are a family of eicosanoid precursors that go on to produce essential fatty acids such as w3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (Desoye Mouzon 2007). There has been a recent investigation which found that with increased adiposity at birth there has been an increase in w3 fatty acids in the placenta (Verastehpour et al 2005 cited Desoye and Mouzon 2007).As stated before, the placenta produces cytokines but it is also a site of action of the cytokines. It is the location of the receptors for these cytokines will influence if the cytokines act on the mother, the placenta or the fetus. With cytokines there is very little transfer crossways the placenta from mother to fetus and the origin of the cytokines in the fetus can be from either the placenta or from the fetus itself (Desoye and Mouzon 2007).Fetal ProgrammingMany studies have highlighted the fact that events that occur while the fetus is developing can alter its developmental pathway and have adverse outcomes in later life.Fetal programming describes how the environment can affect certain developmental events of which the effects are permanent and can affect processes such as metabolism and the organisms physiology. Women with GDM have an increased risk of the fetus developing macrosomia (Catalano 2008 Chapter 11).The main factor that effects the growth of the fetus is the maternal environment and there is a strong association with the weight and top of the mother and the growth of the fetus such that mothers who are heavier and taller will produce heavy babies. (Love and Kinch 1965 cited in Catalano 2008 Chapter 11).The placenta and fetal programmingThe placenta is very important to the developmental processes of the fetus as it is able to change the quantity of signals and nutrients that the fetus receives. Deviation from normal would alter the fetal programming, thus making it more susceptible to disease in later life. Pregna ncies that are complicated by GDM have excessive oxidative and process stress which has been found to change the activity of certain proteins. Oxidative and nitrate stress alter the placentas function and may cause changes in the fetal programming. Nutrient transfer depends largely on the normal development of the vasculature to allow blood flow and this can be affected by GDM which can cause a decrease in the flow of substrates and is a mechanism in which fetal programming can be affected (Myatt 2006).Fetal programming involves a large amount of development plasticity and interruptions to this development may cause abnormalities in the development of certain cells which may progress to structural differences in organ development (Gluckman and Hanson 2004 cited in Jansson and Powell 2008 ref 16).Effects to the fetus exposed to GDMIf a fetus is exposed to a diabetic environment during pregnancy then there can be certain long term effects. These effects can be classified into three g roups Anthropometric, Metabolic or Vascular and Neurological or Psychological. Anthropometric changes are concerned with the rates of growth for both height and weight and in a diabetic environment these can be excessive leading to macrosomia and obesity in later life. Metabolic and vascular changes that occur are abnormal glucose tolerance which can eventually lead to diabetes mellitus. Finally the neurological and psychological changes that can occur are usually minor but development of psychological and intellect can sometimes be deficient (Dabelea and Pettitt 2008).Potential problems that may arise with the fetus from an scene to maternal diabetes include abnormal organ mass, altered angiogenesis and increased levels of fetal insulin (Fetita 2006). It has also been found that if there is an increase in weight during pregnancy then there is usually a higher birth weight of the fetus (Humphreys 1954 cited in Catalano 2008 Chapter 11).The developing fetus cannot synthesise glucose and is dependent on the mother to produce it where it is transported to the fetus via facilitated diffusion through the placenta (Aerts et al 1996 cited in Mello, Parretti and Hod 2008). The result of decreased insulin sensitivity is that there is more glucose available to the developing fetus which can lead to a greater birth weight (Mello, Parretti and Hod 2008).Using animal models, it has been shown that exposure to high levels of glucose in utero can lead a diminished number of nephrons in the offspring (Amri et al 1999 cited in Fetita 2006 ref 68). This is important as nephrogenesis only occurs in the fetus and stops after birth (Gomez, Norwood 1999). It has been shown that a reduction in the numbers of nephron may affect the rate of progression of renal disease in adults due to an inability to secrete sodium. This may later develop into salt-sensitive hypertension (Brenner et al 1988).The mechanisms of reduced organ mass, high levels of fetal insulin and defects in angiogenes is may help explain how the fetus programs abnormal glucose tolerance in adulthood as a result of exposure to GDM (Fetita 2006).Transmission of diabetes from mother to offspringExposure to gestational diabetes mellitus increases the risk of the fetus developing abnormal glucose tolerance which may develop into type 2 diabetes. (Fetita et al 2006). The association between greater incidences of the offspring having diabetes with a mother with GDM is greater than what would be predicted that could be passed on by maternal genetics (McLean et al 2006).One study showed that the phenotype for GDM/T2D was more common in daughters of mothers who were diabetic rather than daughters

Making Utilities for MS-DOS :: Microsoft Computers System Software Essays

Making Utilities for MS-DOSThese days, when computers play an important role in virtually all aspects ofour life, the issue of concern to many programmers is Microsofts hiding oftechnical documentation. Microsoft is by furthermost the most important system softwaredeveloper. There trick be no argument about that. Microsofts MS-DOS operationalsystem has become a de facto standardised (IBMs PC-DOS is actually a licensedversion of MS-DOS). And this should be so, because these systems are very wellwritten. The people who designed them are perhaps the best software engineers inthe world.But making a computer platform that is a de facto standard should imply a gooddeal of responsibility before the developers who make applications for thatplatform. In particular, proper documentation is essential for such a platform.Not providing enough documentation for a system that everyone uses can havedisastrous results. Think of it, an operating system is useless by itself, itssole purpose is to p rovide services to applications. And who would be able todevelop applications for an operating system if the documentation for thatsystem is private and available only to the company that developed it?Obviously, only the company that has developed that operating system will beable to develop software for it. And this is a violation of the Antitrust Law.And now I start having a suspicion that this is happening with Microsoftsoperating systems. It should be no secret to anyone that MS-DOS contains a lotof undocumented system calls, data structures and other features. Numerous bookshave been written on this subject (see bibliography). Many of them are vital tosystem programming. There is no instruction to write a piece of system software, such asa multitasker, a local area network, or another operating system extension,without cunning this undocumented functionality in MS-DOS. And, sure enough,Microsoft is using this functionality extensively when developing operatingsystem extensio ns. For example, Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Network, andMicrosoft CD-ROM Extensions (MSCDEX) rely heavily on the undocumented internalsof MS-DOS.The reader can ask, Why do they leave functionality undocumented? To answerthat question, we should look at what this functionality actually is. In MS-DOS, the undocumented functionality is actually the internal structures thatMS-DOS uses to implement its documented INT 21h API. whatever operating system musthave some internal structures in which it keeps information about disk drives,open files, network connections, alien file systems, rivulet tasks, etc. And MS-DOS (later Ill call it simply DOS) has internal structures too. Thesestructures form the core of undocumented functionality in MS-DOS. Thisoperating system also has some undocumented INT 21h API functions, besides they

Assessment of Students Special Needs Essay -- Education

The first school I was worked in Saudi Arabia was a elflike village far from the city more than an hour and a half. I was general classroom teacher for only four students in the first chassis . One of my students did not respond for any oral or written tests. After the first week, I solve to tell the school principal active her poor performance in the classroom comparing to her peers. The principal asked the supervisor at the city education department who suggested that parents should take their girl to the education wellness center in the city because no specialist available to visit remote school. The principal told her set about that she should take her to diagnose her problem in city. Her mother came to school after few days and she asked for her daughter file because she has learning disability and she will study in special school. Students require precise tests to be classified as students with disabilities or learning difficulties which is called assessment. Assessment is defined as the process of gathering information about a students abilities or behaviour for the purpose of making decisions about the student (Elliott, Braden, & White, 2001,p.12). it is used to decide if students with special needs are eligible for special education services and, if eligible, to decide what are these services (Reschly, 1996 Browder, 1991). This essay will briefly discuss the key aspects of assessment, the purposes of assessment for students with disabilities, and the assessment adaptation.Miller, Linn, and Gronlund (2009) pointed out the general principles of the assessment process. The first principle is the spec of what is to be assessed and of what are the intended goals to be achieved, before the selection of assessment pro... ...ation for Students with Disabilities , 6 (1), 40-53.Salvia, J., Ysseldyke, J. E., & Bolt, S. (2007). Assessment in particular and Inclusive Education (10th ed.). Boston Houghton Mifflin Company.Spinelli, C. G. (2002). schoolr oom Assessment for Students with Special Needs in Inclusive Education. New Jersey Colombus, Ohio Merrill Prentice Hall.Taylor, C. S., & Nolen, S. B. (2005). Classrom Assessment supporting Teaching and Learning in Real Classrooms. NewJersey Pearson.Venn, J. J. (2006). Assessing Students with Special Needs (4th ed.). New Jersy Pearson.Westwood, P. (1995). Effective Teaching Paper Presented at the North West Region Inaugural Special Education Conference Prioritries, Partnerships (and Pulm Puddings). Armidle.Ysseldyke, J. E., & Salvia, J. (1988). Assessment in Special and Remedial Education (4th ed.). Boston Houghton Mifflin Company.